Eng 221 Critique Essay

The Canon iR1210 is an All-in-One office printer designed to make an office more productive. It also has with it a six-page owners manual designed to inform the owner of many features of this printer and how it can make a person’s work around the office more productive by having this printer. This paper will provide critiques of the owner’s manual for the iR1210. The criteria for this critique will be in the following areas, Audience Recognition, Introduction, Glossary, Technical Description, and Graphics. The link to find the manual is by going to www.safemanuals.com and clicking on the Canon iR1210 link and that will enable anyone to download the manual. In writing a manual the goal is to offer customer support. Audience Recognition is a way to decide what to say and how to say. The writer needs to recognize who the readers are and give them what they want. The iR1210 manual does do very good job information in very simple terms what the iR1210 is capable of doing for the reader. The writing is very clear and to the point and avoids using any jargon that the reader may understand. The one downside for the audience recognition it does not have any instruction on how to use the product. It only really gives the readers highlights of the product so it does lack a bit of thoroughness. An Introduction to a manual is a way to promote good customer-company relationships. It is a way to personalize the manual and to achieve a positive customer contact. The iR1210 manual does an outstanding job of personalizing the manual. It does try to speak directly to the owner of the product by letting them know how much they will be benefiting from this product. One area that the manual can improve in is its use of positive  words. The manual does not really make the reader feel like the company is glad they bought their product. The Glossary is a way for the manual to let the reader know what they are referring to if they are using any abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols in the instruction of the products. The iR1210 manual does avoid needing any glossary because it does a very good job of avoiding using any abbreviations, acronyms, or symbols that the reader may not understand. It does lack any real technical instruction in the manual, and there is not any glossary in the manual. Manuals will contain a Technical Description of the product; it could be an explanation or a labeling of the product. May also include a list of the product’s specifications, such as size, shape, capacity, and capability of the product. The iR1210 has a large list of product specifications, which can be very helpful for the owner. It however does not include any kind of photo labeling each part of the system. Some owners may find that helpful to locate different parts of the product. Graphics are a way to make the instruction more visually appealing, and can help the reader understand instruction easier. The iR120 manual does have a number of photos of the product in different work type settings. But it does not include any kind of instruction on how to use the photo with the photos. Overall the manual for the iR120 is a very well done. It does highlight the features of the product and does a very good with audience recognition and personalizing the product. The area that the manual does need to improve on is the instruction of the product. It seems to be more focused on a person who already has a working knowledge of the product. An owner, who may not have the same knowledge, may find the manual lacking proper instruction on how to use the product.

Hockey Sticks

The hockey stick, the most basic piece of equipment, is also the most confounding. While other pieces of gear either fit or don’t fit, the stick defies such a simple categorization. It’s more like buying a pizza. Size is the easy part—options are where things get tricky. Stick technology has come along way from the days when players found a nice piece of hickory and started whittling. Sticks today come in a number of materials that in themselves can be overwhelming. These range from wooden shafts with ABS plastic blades, to traditional wood and fiberglass, to full Kevlar and Carbon Fiber. Prices can vary by a factor of ten, with a very simple stick costing around $20 and top end exotics surpassing the $200 mark. Today’s stick market has as much variety as the grocery store’s breakfast isle. The three main kinds of sticks are: Wooden Sticks, Two-piece sticks and blades, One-piece composite sticks The Wooden Stick The wooden stick has been around since the inception of hockey. Despite the many improvements in this most basic piece of hockey gear, there are still a few NHL pros using wood sticks. Still the numbers are dwindling from about half the league using wood several years ago, to just a handful now. Another reason some players still prefer wood might be feel. One thing that technology hasn’t improved is the feel. If you cannot catch a pass, or stickhandle through the defense, there isn’t much point in being able to shoot an extra ten miles per hour. Many Pros are now using a composite shaft with a wood blade as a compromise between the best of both worlds. Beyond the obvious issue of having the plainest stick in the locker room, the negative of a wood stick is simple durability. Even if you are like me and don’t break many sticks, wood will wear out. Shooting the puck hard requires flexing the shaft and getting a good pop, almost like a bow releasing an arrow. The fibers in wooden sticks break down fairly quickly and the spring that you need in releasing a shot gets weaker. Wooden sticks are the smartest choice for beginning players. The cost of a composite stick balanced against the minimal gain a beginner might get doesn’t make sense. Until beginners learn to shoot, poke check and stick handle and stand up on skates adequately; there isn’t much point in spending big bucks on a composite stick. Trust me; no one looks any less silly falling down with a $200 stick than they do with a $20 stick. Two-piece Shafts and Blades Two-piece sticks have been around for a while. The blade and shaft, sold separately, are hot-glued together with a heat gun. Originally making its debut in the medium of aluminum, the two-piece shaft is now available in such exotic materials as Carbon Fiber, Graphite and Kevlar. Some lower priced shafts are pure fiberglass making them heavier and more prone to breakage. Aluminum shafts lasted almost forever and are still a favorite of many players who own one, but they are almost impossible to find. The advantages in a two-piece stick are lighter weight, more consistent performance and longevity. The type of a blade selected can change the weight somewhat, but it will generally weigh less than a wooden stick. This translates into slightly quicker stick handling for the player. One downside to buying a two-piece is the cost. Even an inexpensive shaft and blade will cost twice what a wooden stick goes for. Realistically, the cheapest shaft on the market will cost about $40 and a low-end blade for it about $25. More likely you will spend over $150 to get a two-piece stick of decent quality. However, since the largest numbers of breakages in sticks occur at the blade, the two-piece is an attractive option after the initial investment. Two-piece shafts and blades are interchangeable between brands. Junior and Senior are the two basic blade sizes. The shafts come in Junior, Senior and Intermediate sizes with intermediate shafts accepting senior blades. Tapered two-piece sticks are typically the top performing two-piece sticks and priced accordingly. The Modern One Piece Sticks The term one-piece stick used to simply refer to a wooden stick that wasn’t broken. Now it refers to the expensive, featherweight, composite jobs that would make NASA proud. (The price tags are starting to get into the NASA range too). The one-piece stick is the newest of stick options. Easton’s very popular Synergy started the craze and remains among the most popular choices today. The one-piece is the lightest of the three basic choices available, and widely considered the top performer as well. A one-piece stick will have a very nice, almost weightless feel to it when even the casual player picks it up. The one-piece is made of carbon fiber or Kevlar. One-piece sticks are probably the most hyped up piece of hockey equipment today. Every brand seems to have their own unique design, from holes in the shaft, to a spine on the blade like a two-piece; the one piece is a durable, high performance choice. The one-piece will give most players many months of quality play. There is little argument that a good player will notice a more powerful shot with a one-piece stick. So perhaps the biggest downside to the one-piece stick is their position as the most expensive option. The price of a one-piece is generally comparable to that of a two-piece initially but does top out much higher. Not only is the initial investment sometimes higher, but in order to keep that same high level of performance, players will need to buy a new stick every time they break one. As you can see there are a variety of sticks to choose from and not every person will like the same stick. Even with all this information I just gave to you, it still might be hard for you to choose one that you will like. It's not something your friend can help you pick out because it's more of your opinion and how it feels in your hands. Hockey is a sport where the gear and theme of the game are both independent, the help of others is useful but at the end of the day, it’s on your shoulders; it’s your choice that makes the final decision.

Mexico and its Importance to US Bilateral relations Essay

Mexico is an important asset to the United States, is shares 1,954 miles of border with the United States, and has become an important economic trading partner with the United States. Relations between these two nations are paramount, but we must address a list of issues that need answers, economic reform, homeland security, drug control, migration and even the environment. Every day over one million people cross the border legally, in 2012 two way trade totaled over $500 billion dollars. Mexico has remained one of the biggest tourist destinations for American travelers, and America major source of tourism for Mexico. Cooperation between these two nations is important, it is also important for the United States to help streamline diplomacy with Mexico. In 2010 the Executive Committee for 21st Century Border Management was created to help create advancements in creating a modern, secure and efficient border. This Committee was created to spur ideas on ways to help secure the border, as well as create a better way to manage the legal crossing taking place every day. The attacks September 1 1, 2001 led to the closing of many border crossing, putting a strain on the already verworked crossings, with the implementation of this program new ways are being explored on how we should run these border crossings as well as exploring the re- opening of certain closed crossing points. Cooperative activities between the U. S. and Mexico take place under a number of arrangements such as the U. S. -Mexico Border 2012/2020 Program the North American Development Bank and the Border Environment Cooperation Commission; the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation; the Border Health Commission. These agencies help cooperate with Mexico in regards to the serious environmental issues that have risen ue to population growth and industrialization. In 2008 we began the Merida Initiative seeking to cooperate with Mexico as well as other South American countries in an attempt to curb the growing trend of drug trafficking crimes. Mexico suggested that it was a shared problem because the majority of the money flowing into Mexico was from American drug users. Although as of 2012 congress has appropriated nearly 1. 9 billion dollars to the Merida Initiative. Beginning in 2010 the Merida Initiative took a four pillar approach to break down its attempts at disrupting the drug trafficking and violence problem. The first pillar aims to disrupt the capacity of organized crime to operate and the second pillar focuses on enhancing the capacity of Mexico’s government and institutions to sustain the rule of law. The Merida Initiative’s third pillar aims to improve border management to facilitate legitimate trade and movement of people while thwarting the flow of drugs, arms, and cash. Finally, the fourth pillar seeks to build strong and resilient communities. Despite the major advances we have made with mexico regarding trade and the furtherance of our partnership as nations, it must be noted the major issues we still ace. The Drug Cartels in mexico currently run a 20 plus billion dollar a year industry. important area of discussion is the immigration issues that have faced the united states from mexico as immigrants attempt to flee mexico for a variety of reasons. Mexico is also a major recipient of remittances, in 2012 the state department estimated over 22 billion dollars’ worth was sent from relatives living in America. Immigration has become a hot point in current affairs, it is time to analise some options for the future in regards to immigration and options regarding drug rafficking issues. In may of 2013 Obama announced the formation of a bilateral forum on higher education, innovation, and research. With this forum the United States and mexico will encourage typically underprivileged students to attend college and secondary schools providing them access to these schools as well as secondary training programs in STEM fields.. This forum is our first step towards making mexico an economic power as well as a place that can welcome advancing technology. Recommendations. Increasing the funding that is appropriated for the Merida Initiative, this funding hould be sent towards furthering the security checkpoints at Mexico’s borders. Updating x ray machines as well as non-invasive body scanners. Money should also be spent in an attempt to inform the Mexican community of the intentions to curb the trend of drug cartel control. The Merida initiative should focus primarily on the first pillar, of disrupting organized Criminal Groups. Scrapping all additional plans for continuing the fence on the American Mexican border. Rather Funds should be appropriated in designating a committee to explore further partnership with Mexico regarding immigration. America needs to accept that Mexican immigrants as a majority are good people looking for honest work. This should no longer be a crime, The process of obtaining a green card should be streamlined, making it accessible to anyone who seeks it out. This policy has to go hand in hand with near total elimination of drug violence. Mexico needs to be regarded as a safe place where both American and Mexican nationals can come and go across the border freely and without safety in question. Mexico should not be treated as a third world nation, we have the potential to help them become a eautiful place to visit. It Just requires some creative policy ideas to meet our goals. Drug Reform has not had much success, in part to the weak policies that have been implemented.

Entomology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Entomology - Essay Example The narrator's speech pattern, even ignoring her natural accent, is stilted, unnatural, and uncomfortable, making the watcher very aware of the presence of the camera in the room with the speaker. However, as this is a documentary about insects, who obviously do not normally speak at all, it is possible that such awareness of the presence of a camera in the room with the narrator is inevitable. The narrator does not shy away from using the scientifically correct terms for the parts of the insects' genitalia, helping to return the video to a more clinical and scientific feeling than the costumes and acting style would otherwise provide to this documentary. The use of cardboard cut-outs to play the role of the Queen bee in the mating scene avoids any level of eroticism in the scene. This and the use of clinical language helps to remind the viewer that what they are watching is a documentary, not a joke or a spoof short film as it can at times feel. There is much that could be done to m ake this film feel more professional and scientific, even if the purpose of the films is to reach a general audience. This film seems to lack a professional touch that would make it believable and credible to the average movie-goer. However, despite any other possible failings of her films, Rossellini definitely manages to be different from most insect and animal life documentaries. It is certainly more interesting and more entertaining than most films I have seen in the documentary genre. Strange as this movie may seem to the viewer, it does succeed in making the honey bee mating practices unforgettable. I will never now be able to remove the image of the actor portraying the male bee, bleeding to death from his groin as the cardboard Queen flies away with a large stick, representing the male's severed penis, jammed through "her" body. Nor will I be able to forget the image of the cubes of red Jell-o, representing the royal jelly, being offered to a small baby wrapped in a blanket, representing the larval Queen. While the biological informational content of the entire video is rather low, it succeeds in its fundamental purpose: providing an audience made up of non-scientifically-educated adults with basic knowledge of bees and their life cycle. Another documentary in the â€Å"Green Porno† series, on praying mantis mating habits, uses a similar costume design style, but also added in some interesting color and light effects to focus the viewer's attention on the narrator's voice instead of the actual speaker. This video features a model of a praying mantis built of paper or cardboard that resembles an origami sculpture. The general feel of this video is one of simplicity, rather than the previous documentary's cheap feel, though the cheesy effect remains to a certain extent. The video is extremely short and fast, probably to imitate the mating habits of the subject species in question. It exemplifies the life span of the male praying mantis, that he ex ists only to copulate with the female and to feed her so she will bear his young. The video, his life, and the time period of the actual mating all exist only briefly. Again, the level of scientific knowledge imparted by this video is low but functional. Rossellini greatly simplifies the life and habits of the bees and praying mantis, but manages not to take such simplification to the point of error as so often

LAW OF INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE CONTRACT Coursework

LAW OF INTERNATIONAL INSURANCE CONTRACT - Coursework Example The insurance also covers some liabilities that arise in cases where there is a collision with another ship and also the liability for colliding with other objects (FFO-Fixed and Floating Objects). Typically, claims under Hull and Machinery insurance include, total loss of the ship; damage to ship, engines and equipments; explosions and fires; groundings; collisions; and striking other objects. The scope of the type of damages covered by Hull and Machinery Insurance has been defined by International Hull Clauses (IHC). In clause 2.1.6, it states that HM & I covers the losses caused to the ship due to â€Å"contact with land conveyance, dock or harbor equipment or Installation.†1 There are certain risks and liabilities that are not covered under Hull and Machinery insurance. A prudent ship-owner may look to get insurance cover for liabilities to third parties. Such liabilities might arise due to a third party’s legal or contractual claim against the ship. P & I insurance is arranged by entering the ship into a mutual insurance association which is usually referred to as a â€Å"club†. All the members of this club are ship-owners. Therefore, the P & I club is only answerable to its members. A Marine Insurance company, on the other hand, is answerable to its shareholders. P & I clubs provide insurance covers for much broader risks than the Hull and Machinery insurance schemes. When a ship has an accident due to the perils of the sea, Hull & Machinery insurance provides cover for the loss that has occurred to the ship. There are many other things that are connected with the ship. The crew of the ship, the employees, may also get hurt and claim compensation for their injuries. Also, the owner of the cargo that may have been carried in the ship would also claim for his loss against the ship-owner. Hull & Machinery insurance does not provide cover for such liabilities to third parties. However, the ship-owner can get protection from such claims by pursuing P & I insurance. As far as the liability to the owner of the cargo is concerned, the cargo owner has a first claim against the carrier. The cargo owner may not succeed in his claim because either the ship-owner was not responsible for the loss or he is protected under Hague-Visby2 rules. In such cases, the cargo owner claims compensation from his insurer under Cargo Insurance. By the right of subrogation, the insurer, after compensating his client, would be able to pursue the claim in his own right against the carrier. To avoid this claim against him, the carrier seeks the services of P & I club. This means that the same cargo can be insured twice. P & I clubs also settle the claims against the ship-owner when the crew is injured. There can be other â€Å"Third† parties that can have legal or contractual claims against the ship-owner. P & I insurance addresses all of those claims. There are risks that are not covered by P & I insurance because they are covered by an other form of insurance. In relation to Hull & Machinery Insurance, P & I insurance is able to cover almost all the risks that H & M leaves out. Even for the claims that are not fully covered by H & M insurance, the portion of the claim that is left out can be covered under P & I insurance. Therefore, P & I insurance complements Hull and Machinery insurance as the risks that are not covered by one are covered by the other. When both forms of marine insurance are

Intrinsic Value of Nature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Intrinsic Value of Nature - Essay Example This means that such values are independent of human feelings. Such values are considered objective but not subjective in nature. Such values cannot be directly derived from nature neither can they be appended a definite value with regards to monetary issues. It is of critical importance to acknowledge the fact that nature has intrinsic values. The intrinsic values of nature may be evident from some of the services that nature performs to the environment. For instance, one of the intrinsic values of nature involves air purification. This is one of the direct services that nature does for its own sake and is not subjective on the feelings, consciousness as well as influence of human beings (Palmer, 1994/2012). In addition, it is difficult to append monetary value to such issues concerning air purification by nature. This follows that such services are unquantifiable and are intrinsic (Rolston, 1998/2012). Nature purifies air through absorption of dust particles as well as other elements that may lead to atmospheric pollution. These may include the fumes and gases released from industrial actions. The absorption of such pollutants from the atmosphere cannot be appended definite monetary values. However, such values are intrinsic to nature. In addition, nature also contributes to purification of air through sequestration of carbon and ozone layer depletants like sulphur compounds. This is beneficial to human beings since it minimizes chances of having acid rains and respiratory diseases. Climate regulation is another intrinsic value of nature. Nature regulates climate in a number of ways. nature does this on its own and does not depend on the consciousness of human beings. However, in order to effectively discharge this service, nature only needs enabling natural conditions referred to by Rolston as the â€Å"positive creativity† in his concept of intrinsic value of nature (Rolston, 1998/2012). The issue of climate

Human Resource Strategy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Resource Strategy - Research Paper Example This customer focused company concentrates on its Human Resource Management very seriously. Wal-Mart pays much attention in recruiting its staff and training them. This research paper focuses on creating a global resource strategy of Wal-Mart in recruitment, interviewing, selection, hiring, and training of floor manager. In discussing the global recruitment strategies of Wal-Mart in recruiting floor manager can be mainly conducted in two ways which are internal and external recruitment. In internal recruitment process the employee of the company will refer suitable candidates for the position of floor manager. If that referred candidate is finally recruited by Wal-Mart then the employee will receive a reward for referring him. In its external recruitment strategy the company will select candidates from its different external sources. Wal-Mart can collect information about the successful floor managers working in its competitors companies and sent recruitment offers to them. Another recruitment strategy the firm can adopt is that the final shortlisted candidate will have to provide the names of some top talents in their last or current company with the necessary details. It will help Wal-Mart to get in touch will different talented candidates. The interview process of Wal-Mart must be very strong for selection the right candidate for the position of floor manager. The company’s global human resource strategies on its interview process can be based on different type of tests. The strategy of conducting Psychometric test will help to know the candidate’s ability, personality and aptitude. The firm can implement group activity test for assessing the candidate’s performance in a group work. Case study based interview helps to evaluate the knowledge of the applicant. The strategies of unstructured interview will inform Wal-Mart about the actual interest and ambitions of the interviewee by informal discussions (Moneim

Corporate governance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporate governance - Essay Example The role of independent directors and non executive directors become significant as they are intended to serve as deterrent in the misuse and abuse of power by the vested interests, especially the senior management of the company. The paper would be broadly rationalizing the role of independent non executive directors within the broader parameter of corporate governance. Corporate governance is based on publicly acceptable values and code of behaviour for the higher echelons of corporate bodies (Haller & Shore, 2005). It can primarily be described as a set of well defined policies, rules and regulations and customs that effectively control the various internal and external processes of the business enterprises. They are, thus intended to create an environment that improves productivity, economic efficiency and protects the interests of various stakeholders through ethically delivered goals (Solomon, 2007; Mueller, 1996). Since the good corporate governance is dependent on effective p olicies and laws, the role of CEO and board of directors becomes crucial ingredient for their efficient implementation. In the various modalities and process that are incorporated within good corporate governance, the role of independent non executive directors in the company’s board has increasingly become key component of the success of the company. The recent cases of abuse of shareholders’ rights in the various countries have brought the role of corporate governance into the prominence. The increased risks to the interests of the various stakeholders have necessitated stringent code of conduct for the higher hierarchy of management. Chief Executive of the firm and board of directors, therefore become intrinsic part of corporate governance. They are endowed with the primarily responsibility for good codes of corporate governance and best practices within the organization that promote accountability. Boritz, (1990) has defined risks as possible loss due to uncertaint y and exposure of the firm from inappropriate investment decision or a commitment. Thus, risks and need for more effective transparency within the system become vital postulates of CG whose implementation is overseen and guided under the strict vigilance of independent non executive directors. Independent non executive directors in the board provide the firm with independent, objective and creative inputs on the various processes and modalities of business operations. As they are basically from outside the organization, they are observed to be equipped with unbiased approach to the issues and factors that could have long lasting impact on the performance outcome of the company. Cadbury report (1992, p33) explicitly states that they bring in ‘independent judgment’ within the board. Their presence on board therefore is designed to discourage the vested interests against financial malpractices and fraud. This is one of the most important criteria that reiterated the import ance of inclusion of independent non executive directors on the boards of the companies. UK has been a leader in setting up a Combined Code of Corporate Governance. UK boasts of a highly developed business environment with a vast shareholders’ base. The various financial institutions, big corporate houses, institutional investors and individuals with

Pax Romana. Read up on it in your textbook and then write a three-four Research Paper

Pax Romana. Read up on it in your textbook and then write a three-four page on those emperors who you think were good ( an - Research Paper Example They made possible the prosperous trades by which Roman civilization acquired rich imports of Chinese, Persian rugs, Arabian perfumes, Phoenician purple dyes, Indonesian spices, as well as Greek porcelains and Indian fabrics. As such, during the reign of Roman Emperor Trajan (A.D. 53 – A.D. 117), a Spanish military commander, there had been rigorous efforts to construct useful buildings for Romans. Among his great achievements besides facilitating extensive projects on building public structures, Trajan is additionally recognized for his policies on social welfare and conquests in the east. Because of him, Rome would stand in pride even in modern times due to Trajan’s Forum, Trajan’s Market, and Trajan’s Column which were all erected upon implementation of his successful program. Similarly, the rule of Roman Emperor Hadrian (76 A.D. - 138 A.D.)  brought wealth and security for the empire the time he eradicated the territorial expansion of Rome and fortif ied Roman boundaries upon construction of several â€Å"Walls of Hadrian†. ... Apparently, Trajan and Hadrian did make salutary emperors of Rome based on the aforementioned accomplishments from which I can perceive how they took care of the entire citizenry by focusing on provisions and works that improved the empire and strengthened healthy socio-political relations among people who looked up to leaders whose ideals were far from corrupt and selfish inclinations. Together with the other three good emperors namely – Nerva, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, they had been able to establish a kind of government that consisted of officials who advanced people’s interests and worked for the empire with large sense of integrity and heart. To this extent, I must highly commend Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161 – A.D. 180) for all the good vibes felt by the empire out of his exceeding humble goodness. His wonderful character trait basically demonstrated the capacity to share imperial powers like the treatment he gave to Lucius Aurelius Veru s and his predecessor Antonius Pius whose wishes were granted after his regime. Marcus Aurelius is such a remarkable emperor for bearing not just the knowledge of good leadership but even of refined intellect since he was widely known and acclaimed for being a writer and philosopher of the Stoic school of thought. As a philosopher-king of his time, he authored exemplary works such as the â€Å"Meditations† along with the writings which manifested wisdom of truth and beauty of reason. At this point, I could quite imagine how the needs of each citizen were sincerely taken care of by the rule of such an emperor who, by his nature, respected and employed moral virtues of philosophy

EU institutional law and policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

EU institutional law and policy - Essay Example 10 new countries that acceded to the European Union in 2004 (Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the Mediterranean islands of Malta and Cyprus), all intend to join third stage of the EMU in the next ten years, though their precise timing depends on various economic factors. Similarly, those countries who are currently negotiating for entry will also take the euro as their currency in the years following their accession. Prior to adopting the euro, a member state has to have its currency in the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM II) for two years. Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia are the current participants in the exchange rate mechanism"(Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, en.wikipedia.org, referred on 06.05.2006)1 The main objective of the euro is to maintain price stability within the European Union, and at the same time support EU general economic policies, such as the principle of an open market economy, with free competition. "Within fiscal policy, the euro area countries must manage public finances so as to guarantee a sustainable growth, as envisaged in the EU Treaty. A Stability and Growth Pact was adopted, through which all Member States acknowledged the need of a sound fiscal policy for the smooth functioning of the EMU. The Pact comprises three legally binding elements: A resolution passed by the European Council that lays down a firm commitment of its Member States, Commission and the Council to implement the Stability and Growth Pact. A Council regulation that calls for the strengthening of the surveillance of all budgetary positions and co-ordination of economic policies. The key features of these programmes are the specification of national medium- term budgetary targets set close to balance or in surplus. This allows countries to pursue anti-cyclical fiscal policies without breaching the 3% reference value of the deficit. The Stability and Growth Pact is a Council regulation on speeding up and clarifying the implementation of the excessive deficit procedure. If there are no exceptional circumstances and the deficit is considered excessive, the Council will immediately issue a recommendation to the Member State concerned. A maximum of four months is then allowed for the country to take effective action to correct the situation. If the Council considers that the measures are not effective, the next step of the procedure will be engaged" (Stability and Growth Pact, www.bportugal.pt, referred on 06.05.2006)2 As trade between the EU Member States mounted, the member states found EMU as the natural complement of the single

Why are so many high school students dropping out before graduation Essay - 1

Why are so many high school students dropping out before graduation - Essay Example The organization aims at encouraging teenagers to explore their potential, through weekly national campaigns, to bring about social change (â€Å"11 Facts About Dropping Out†). In this competitive age spurred by globalization, there is a need to remain relevant. This implies that countries need to ensure they produce competent and productive workers for economic development thus moderated costs of health care and other social services (Monrad). According to Rumberger and Lim, causes of high school dropouts are categorized into individual and institutional perspectives; therefore, the student’s mindset and conduct are among what individual perspective highlights. These factors relate to the individual, and others include school performance, disengagement, and recurrent residential and school mobility. Dropping out of school is viewed as a process instigated by detachment from school. This implies that the student slowly gets swayed away from the idea of school because of reasons such as undertaking adult duties that consist of taking care of siblings, having to get a job that involves long hours and becoming a parent early. The background of the student is the core foundation of the risk factors identified in the institutional perspectives; moreover, background refers to the environment surrounding a student, and it comprises socioeconomic status, dependable figures in his/her life that is single or step parent and the situation at school. The nature of family a student is raised in is quite crucial and entails the structure i.e. who the breadwinner is practices i.e. values and norms, and resources (Rumberger and Lim). The situation at school entails the behavior and attitudes of teachers i.e. do they interact well with the students, nature of administration i.e. rules and regulations, school structure and resources available to students. Rules and regulations that bring about dropouts include Grade Point Average (GPA) minimums, zero-tolerance

The Two Men in Luther Essay Example for Free

The Two Men in Luther Essay Martin Luther, a Christian theologian stated in 1520 that, â€Å"A Christian man is the most free lord of all, and subject to none; a Christian man is the most dutiful servant of all, and subject to everyone†. Although at first glance, this statement appears to be a paradox. Through the understanding of Luther’s beliefs between the difference of spirituality and physicality, one can realize that this statement is not contradictory. The Catholic church believs that one needs spiritual purity, as well as the performance of Christian acts to achieve salvation. Martin Luther believed that preforming Christain deeds was godlike, but not a component of reaching salvation. In the sixteenth century, the Catholic Church believed that to achieve salvation, one must be spiritually pure, and preform a sufficient amount of good Christian acts. The concept exists to allow christains more time to preform these acts to ensure salvation. Martin Luther disagreed with the catholic church in that to reach all one has to do to reach salvation is to be spiritually pure by accepting the word of god. He felt that the Catholic Church took advantage of its followers by saying that giving money was a Christian act and that one could buy their way to heaven. Luther’s doctrines formulated a new breed a christains that believed in spirituality as the key to achieving salvation. This spiritual side of a christain was referred to as the inward man. The inward man could achieve salvation by accepting the word of god.

Pantaloon Retail Indias Leading Retailers Marketing Essay

Pantaloon Retail Indias Leading Retailers Marketing Essay Pantaloons origin can be traced to 1987 when the company was incorporated as Manz Wear Private Limited. Originally incorporated as Manz Wear Private Limited on October 12, 1987.The Companys name was changed to Manz Wear Limited on September 20,1991, further to Pantaloon Fashions (India) Limited on September 25, 1992 and to Pantaloon Retail (India) Limited on July 7 1999. The company launched Pantaloons trouser, Indias first formal trouser brand. In 1992, Pantaloon launched its IPO. In 1994, The Pantaloon Shoppe exclusive menswear store in franchisee format was launched across the country. Pantaloon started distribution of branded garments through multi-brand retail outlets across the nation. In 2001, Big Bazaar, Indias first hypermarket chain was launched. In 2002, Food Bazaar, the supermarket chain was launched. In 2006, Future Capital Holdings, the companys financial arm launched real estate funds, Kshitij and Horizon and private equity fund Indivision. The company is also planning forays into insurance and consumer credit. The Pantaloon Retail (India) Limited, entered the retail market in 1997 with its first flagship store hosted by Kolkata. Pantaloons began as a fashion retail chain. The Future Group launched it as its introductory venture. Such was its popularity that by the year 2001, many more sub-retail lines were launched that dealt in specific merchandise like footwear, fashion accessories, food, grocery and electronics. Registered Office of the Company: Pantaloon Retail (India) Limited Pantaloon Knowledge House, Shyam Nagar, Off. Jogeshwari Vikhroli Link Road, Jogeshwari (East), Mumbai 400 060 Registration No. 44954/1987 Registrar of Companies at Mumbai, Maharashtra located at Hakoba Mill Compound, Kalachowki, Mumbai 400 033. Headquarters: Mumbai Industry: Retailing Founder: Kishore Biyani Area served: India (7 million square feet of retail space) Parent company: Future Group Website: www.pantaloon.com Retail Industry Retailing is the worlds largest private industry. Retail is the worlds largest private industry with global retail sales of roughly USD 8 trillion. Retailing is also one of the biggest contributors to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of most countries and also one of the biggest employers. (Source CII McKinsey Report titled Retailing in India, the Emerging Revolution) In India, however, the retail sector has seen a high level of fragmentation with a large share held by unorganized players. India has a large number of retail enterprises. With close to 12 million retail outlets India has one of the highest retail densities in the world. In terms of the structure, the industry is fragmented and predominantly consists of independent, owner-managed shops. The retail businesses include a variety of traditional retail formats, such as kirana stores which stock basic household necessities (including food products), street markets-regular markets held at fixed centres retailing food and general merchandise items, street vendors mobile retailers essentially selling perishable food items-fruits, vegetables etc and small non specialized retailers. Growth of Organized Retail in India India is expected to show similar trends as Indian consumers in the past have shown an ability to leapfrog evolution cycles as has happened in the case of various consumer products such as mobile phones. KSA Technopak estimates organized retail in India to reach 12% to 13% of the total retail market by 2010 with sales of Rs. 1700-1800 billion, aided by improved real estate infrastructure and easier access to capital. Rs(billion) 2002 2010 Estimated size of retail in India 10,700 14,000 Share of organised retail in India(%) 2 12-13 Size of organised retail in India 225 1700-1800 Source: KSA Technopak The Indian retail industry is evolving in line with the changing customer aspirations across product groups, with modern formats of retailing emerging. Composition of Organized Retail A break-up of sales in organized retail shows Lifestyle (clothing and textile, footwear, home, watches and jewellery and health and beauty) as the largest segment accounting for 73% in value terms. This is followed by food and grocery accounting for 14% of the organized retail value. Break-up of consumers expenditure in organized retail Rapid growth of organized retailing is expected in the food segment. We believe this can be attributed to the highly unorganized nature of the market currently, which thus presents an attractive potential, and the growing preference of consumers to shop at modern retail formats. Clothing is the other segment expected to show high growth potential. Factors affecting changes in the retail sector An analysis of private final consumption expenditure in India suggests that the food, beverages and tobacco segments constitute about 50% of total household expenditure, with clothing and footwear contributing just around 5%. However contribution of food and groceries to organized retailing is just 14%. There are a large variety of retailers operating in the food retailing sector such as independent grocers, fair price shops, food specialists etc. A greater number of higher income Indians, prefer to shop at supermarkets because of convenience, range of merchandise, higher standards of hygiene and the attractive ambience. Among the segments of organized retail, food retail is expected to develop the fastest. Going forward, it is expected that supermarkets will be the fastest growing food retailers. Their sales are expected to grow by about 40% per year during 2003-2008 (Source: Retailing in India Euro monitor 2004 report). We believe the traditional Indian consumer who is now becoming more fashion and brand conscious welcome more sophisticated outlets retailing footwear which is evident from the fact that the consumer spend on footwear has increased from 1% in 1999 to 2.3% in 2003. With growth in incomes, Indians have been spending more on health and beauty products. As in the case of other retailing sectors, small single-outlet retailers also dominate sales of health and beauty products. Another interesting trend that is emerging is the increasing spend on leisure and entertainment. Indian consumers who were traditionally averse to spending money on entertainment have started spending on eating out, movies and theatre. The entry of a large number of foreign consumer durable companies into the Indian market during the 1990s after the government liberalized its foreign investment and import policies transformed the consumer durable sector dramatically. A much larger variety of consumer electronic items and household appliances became available to the Indian customer. Competition among companies to sell their brands provided a strong impetus to the growth for retailers operating in this sector. Modern Retail Formats Some of the modern retail formats and their value positions are given below. Department stores These large stores retail primarily non-food items such as apparel, footwear, accessories, cosmetics and household products. They stock multiple brands across product categories, though some of them focus on their own store label (on the lines of Marks Spencers and St. Michael). Several local department store chains have opened shop in India in the past five years. We believe the convenience factor coupled with the aspirational perception of shopping in a department store has contributed to their growth. The larger chains of department stores (Namely Pantaloons, Shoppers Stop,Westside and Lifestyle) have presence in the metros and mini metros. Supermarkets A supermarket is a store which is more of a large self-service grocery store selling groceries and dairy products and household goods that are consumed regularly. These are neighborhood stores offering home and personal care products and food products that a typical household consumes on a day to day basis. These stores offer convenience of shopping by making available a large variety of products at one place. Some of the well known supermarket chain includes Food Bazaar, Nilgiris, Food World, Apna Bazaar, Trinethra etc. Hypermarkets/Discount stores A hypermarket is a store which combines a supermarket and a department store. The result is a retail facility which carries an enormous range of products under one roof, including full lines of fresh groceries and apparel. It is a large format store that aims at retail consolidation by being a single point contact between the brand owners and customers. They are planned, constructed, and executed in a manner that a consumer can ideally satisfy all of their routine weekly shopping needs in one trip to the hypermarket. Large variety of products is available at reasonable prices with discounts built in for volume purchased. Big Bazaar, Spencers, Star India Bazaar are examples of hypermarket formats. Seamless Mall Seamless mall is a format which is relatively new in India. In this format, various brands operate their retail areas without any wall between them, providing a seamless shopping experience. This makes it possible for shoppers to compare brands with ease while they shop. We believe this also means that the store can reallocate space more easily based on merchandise/brand performance and customer feedback. Besides offering apparels, accessories and lifestyle products these malls are also equipped with entertainment and leisure facilities. Central is an example of a seamless mall. Speciality stores Specialty stores as the name suggests are stores that specializes in a particular offering. A specialty store carries a deep assortment within a narrow line of goods. Furniture stores, florists, sporting-goods stores, and bookstores are all specialty stores. Examples of specialty stores in India would include Planet Sports, aLL, Planet M, Musicworld, Crossword etc. FUTURE GROUP Introduction Retail forms the core business activity at Future Group and most of its businesses in the consumption space are built around retail. Future Groups retail network touches the lives of more than 200 million Indians in  73 cities and 65 rural locations  across the country. The group currently operates around  1,000 stores  spread over  16 million square feet  of retail space. Present in the value and lifestyle segments, the groups retail formats cater to almost the entire consumption expenditure of a wide cross-section of Indian consumers. GROUP VISION Future Group shall deliver Everything, Everywhere, Every time for Every Indian Consumer in the most profitable manner. GROUP MISSION We share the vision and belief that our customers and stakeholders shall be served only by creating and executing future scenarios in the consumption space leading to economic development. We will be the trendsetters in evolving delivery formats, creating retail realty, making consumption affordable for all customer segments for classes and for masses. We shall infuse Indian brands with confidence and renewed ambition. We shall be efficient, cost- conscious and committed to quality in whatever we do. We shall ensure that our positive attitude, sincerity, humility and united determination shall be the driving force to make us successful. The Future Group in its turn has many verticals other than just Pantaloons and its associated fashion retail chain. In fact, there are 6 verticals in all under the domain of the Future Group that almost covered the entire scope of Indian consumption. These 6 are: Future Retail (retail related) Future Capital (Finance related) Future Brands (Brand Management related) Future Space (Real Estate related) Future Logistics (Management and Distribution related) Future Media (Retail Media Management related) Led by Pantaloon Retail, the Future groups flagship company, the group manages some of Indias most popular retail chains like; Fashion: The group offers a variety of options in fashion. Its brands include aLL, Blue Sky, Central, Etam, Fashion Station, Gini Jony, Navaras, Pantaloons, and Top 10. Food: In food business, the group offers a host of options. Food Bazaar a chain of large supermarkets; Brew Bar a beer bar; cafà © Bollywood a national chain of eateries; Chamosa a pan-Indian chain of snack counters, and Sports Bar a bistro focused on the world of sports. Home Electronics: Options include: Collection i a lifestyle furniture store; Electronics Bazaar offers branded electronic goods and appliances; e-zone trendiest electronics items; Furniture Bazaar entire range of Home Furniture; Home Town one stop destination for all the home needs. Leisure Entertainment: Options are: Bowling Co. state-of-the-art premium family entertainment centre, offering multiple, novel and unique leisure and entertainment options; F 123 offers a wide range of gaming options ranging from bowling and pool to redemption and interactive video games to bumper cars. Wellness Beauty: Options are: Health Village a state-of-the art spa and yoga centre; Star Sitara: Beauty salon for men and women; Tulsi provides access to the best allopathic, ayurvedic and homeopathic medicinal products; Turmeric offers beauty products like colour cosmetics, fragrances, herbal and specialty skin items, hair products and bath accessories. Books Music: Future Groups brand Depot offers Books, CDs, and stationery items. The group also operates Indias leading rural retailing chain,  Aadhaar  that is present in over 65 locations in rural India. Aadhaar, an agri-service cum  rural retail initiative, provides a complete solution provider for the Indian farmer.   PANTALOONS FRESH FASHIONS From our beginning in 1987, we have today evolved as one of the leading manufacturer-retailer and are among the pioneers in setting up a nation-wide chain of large format stores in India. We believe that the various initiatives taken by us have played a key role in enhancing the standards of retail in the country. We started our operations by selling branded garments under Pantaloon, Bare and John Miller brands. We set up our first menswear Pantaloon Shoppe Outlet in 1993. Our business has grown from one store in Kolkata in 1997 occupying an area of 8,000 Sq ft to 72 stores, apart from our 22 factory outlets located in the multiple cities occupying an aggregate area of 21,07,608 Sq. ft. We focus on the Lifestyle segment through 14 Pantaloon stores, 3 Central Malls, 2 aLL, 2 Fashion Station and 1 MeLa store. In the Value offering, we cater to the mass through our 21 Big Bazaar and 30 Food Bazaar outlets. Pantaloons believe that managing customer expectation by offering them all the requirements for their entire family under one roof is the key to being a successful retailer, and hence have built our business model around Family focus rather than individual focus. They believe addressing the family attracts more customers into the store. They retail a range of branded and Private Label apparel, footwear, perfumes, cosmetics, jewellery, leather products and accessories, home products, books, music and toys in our stores. To complete the idea of a family store, besides garments, we also retail household items, consumer durables, and home furnishings, apart from food and personal care products. This is complemented by cafes, food stalls, entertainment, personal care and various beauty related services. Promotions and events are an integral part of our service offering to our customer, which helps us create a unique shopping experience. They have also entered into partnerships/joint ventures to expand our offerings from home to apparel to household products to durables etc. They believe their focus on customers supported by systems and processes and a committed work force are the key factors that have contributed to our success and will help us scale up as we embark on our strategic growth plan. Core values followed by Pantaloons, India à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Indianness: To boast confidence à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Flow: To understand and respect the global nature laws. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adaptability: To become adaptable and flexible to accomplish the challenges. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Positivity and simplicity, in the business thought and action. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To nurture and maintain long-term relationships. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To be receptive and open to the innovative ideas, information and knowledge. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ To value every customer and being modest in the conduct. Major Achievements of Pantaloon Retail Chosen as International Retailer for the Year 2007 Chosen as Emerging Market Retailer of the Year 2007 Best Employers in India (Rank 14th) in the Hewitt Best Employers 2007 survey. Best Managed Company in India (Mid-cap) for the year 2006. Won Images Retail Awards 2006 for Best Value Retail Store, Best Retail Destination, and Best Food Grocery Store. Retail Face of the Year Kishore Biyani Most Admired Food Grocery Retail Visionary of the Year: Kishore Biyani Positioning In the Life-style segment (Pantaloons) the positioning of the store is very different. The store is very open and has a soothing music when the customer enters. The store is very open and spacious; the door of the store is always open which is inviting customers. Since the store is very spacious Pantaloons has segmented its products in a Demographic way and this is the same in all the outlets .The entrance would have the cosmetics jewellery etc then is the ladies section which first has the Indian wear then the western after that its the mens wear and then the sportswear. Pantaloons brands like UMM, DJC are always positioned at the eyelevel. There is a lot of detailing on the presentation of the products which are then displayed on the mannequin. The company would place its beat products on the mannequin. Pantaloon always positions its product at a place where the consumer would see the product once and is easy to locate. Location plays a major role in positioning the product in their store to enhance sale. The company would also position itself according to the needs of the youth because it is the target market and likes things fresh. BUSINESS STRATEGY Promotional Strategy:- Under the market strategy promotional idea is very important. Organization provides some schemes or rebates to retailers or consumers. They make advertisement according to convenient of the people and the feature of the product. So, on the basis of marketing strategy an organization runs in the market. It is several types of which makes helpful to increase sales and turnover of the organization. Pantaloons is the first company to promote their products through movies like Na Tum Jano Na Hum and many others, since the companys focus is youth they tend to promote their products through youth icons like Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Bipasha Basu, they also tend to sponsor events which are watched by the youth like the Pantaloons Femina Miss India which they relate to or is liked by the youth. The company also promotes its products through discounts. For Example-In Pantaloons (life style segment) on a purchase of one t-shirt(UMM) you would have to pay Rs349 and on a purchase of two one would buy it for Rs549.The company keeps yearly or quarterly discounts. Pantaloon majorly promotes its brands through promotions in events which involve youth like Malhaar, Umang and popular college festivals etc. Sectoral Strategies: India has been a country which followed the concept of an organized retail till very recently when the real retail boom happened. The major change was brought in by Pantaloon and Shoppers Stop. Both these companies belonged to a family and the concept of malls started in India and within 5 to 9 years has become a huge sector. Retail contributes 10% to Indias GDP. The retail sector in the country is around $350billionand is expected to grow at a very smooth pace. The organized retail sector is segmented into different types like the hyper market, departmental store, specialty stores ,discount stores and there are other types. PRODUCT CATEGORY Pantaloon sold apparels and accessories categorized under:- Mens formal Mens casual Ladies ethnic Ladies western Childrens wear Pantaloon develops three types of merchandise:- Classic type Fashion type Collection type LOYALTY PROGRAM Green Card Your Green Card is your passport to a whole new world of exclusive benefits and privileges. Instant discount* for every time you shop at Pantaloons Exclusive shopping days to get hold of latest merchandise Regular updates on collections and promos via catalogues, sms and email Special invites to the most happening events Extended exchange periods and complimentary drops for alterations Exclusive billing counters and much more * Categories valid for Green Card Discounts: Apparel, Perfumes Cosmetics, Toys, Bluesky, aLL, Depot, Planet Sports Accessories. MEMBERSHIP When you shop with Green Card, you get rewarded instantly, Online purchases are currently not eligible for Green Card discounts or counted in your purchases. This feature would be available in the near future. 1 Star Members Gift Voucher worth Rs. 200 on enrolment 3 Star Members 5% discount on every purchase 5 Star Members An exclusive 7.5% discount on every purchase 7 Star Members Present your card for the swipe every time you make a purchase at Pantaloons. HOW TO UPGRADE YOUR GREEN CARD Membership 12 month Purchase-based Upgrading System Three Star Card   Upgrade to a 3 star status by shopping for Rs. 8000/- immediately preceding 12 months of current shopping date. Five Star card   Upgrade to a 5 star status by shopping for Rs. 20000/- immediately preceding 12 months of current shopping date. Seven Star   Upgrade to a 7 star status by shopping for Rs. 40000/- immediately preceding 12 months of current shopping date. 12 month Purchase-based Upgrading System   When you shop at Pantaloons and your total purchase (including that day) in the previous 12 months totals to the criteria value of the next tier, you upgrade to the next status. Membership Validity 1 Star card is valid for a period of 2 years from the date of enrolment. 3, 5 and 7 star cards are valid for a period of one year from the date of upgrade. Membership Renewal Purchase worth Rs. 8000 within 2 years of card issue date and retain a 1 star status Purchase worth Rs. 8000 within 1 year of card issue date and retain a 3 star status Purchase worth Rs. 20000 within 1 year of card issue date and retain a 5 star status Purchase worth Rs. 40000 within 1 year of card issue date and retain a 7 star status. SWOT ANALYSIS OF PANTALOONS Strength Pioneer in the industry, largest market share and capitalization.   Reputation for value for money(Competitive pricing), convenience and a wide range of products all in one store   Presence in major cities   Highly Strategic human resource management and development. It invests time and money in training people, and retaining them.   Most trusted and respected brand by the consumers   Being financially strong helps pantaloons retail India deal with any problems, ride any dip in profits and out perform their rivals   Development and Innovation are high at Pantaloons India with regards to it products and consumer preferences and lifestyle changes which keep its ahead of its competitors. Weakness Pantaloons does not function internationally, which has an effect on success, as they do not reach consumers in overseas markets.   PRIL is the Worlds largest grocery retailer and control of its empire, despite its IT advantages, could leave it weak in some areas due to the huge span of control   Since Pantaloons Retail India Ltd sell products across many sectors, it may not have the flexibility of some of its more focused competitors.   Each business line faces competition from specialty companies. Fashion segment, Shoppers Stop, Trent, Lifestyle. In hypermarket-RPG (Spencers),Trent (Star India Bazaar) In Food business, Reliance Fresh, Spinach, Food World Opportunities   Huge untapped market   (The Indian middle class is already 30 Crore is projected to grow to over 60 Crore by 2010 making India one of the largest consumer markets of the world)   Organized retail is only 3% of the total retailing market in India. It is estimated to grow at the rate of 25-30% p.a. and reach INR 1, 00, 000 Crore by 2010.   To take over, merge with, or form strategic alliances with other global retailers, focusing on specific markets   New locations and store types offer PRIL opportunities to exploit market development.(Diversification into insurance , property, and variety of products and stores)   Opportunities exist for PRIL to continue with its current  strategy  of large, super centres.   Rural Retailing Threats   Being number one means that you are the target of competition. (Extra competition and new competitors entering the market could unsteady pantaloons retail India)   A slow economy or financial slowdown could have a major impact on pantaloons retail India business and profits.   Consumer lifestyle changes could lead to less of a demand for pantaloons retail India products/services   Price wars between competitors, price cuts and so on could damage profits for pantaloons retail India.   The actions of a competitor could be a major threat against pantaloons retail India, for instance, if they bring in new technology or increase their workforce to meet demand   Shopping Culture: Shopping culture has not developed in India as yet. Even now malls are just a place to hang around with family and friends and largely confined to window-shopping.   If  unorganized retailers are put together, they are parallel to a large supermarket with  little overheads, high degree of flexibility in merchandise, display, prices and turnover. COMPETITORS In the fashion segment, they face competition from Shoppers Stop, Trent, Westside and Lifestyle. Though the hypermarket is new, only three to four years old, in the country competition is faced from likes RPG (Spencers), Trent (Star India Bazaar) and with Shoppers Stop . In the Food business competition is faced from Subhiksha and Food World. Its major competitors are Westside, Globus, and central. With a sales turnover in 2008-09 FYof Rs. 5048.91 cr, pantaloon has been a clear market leader with the next competitor being Shoppers Stop with a turnover of Rs.1244.79 cr. The numbers suggest that Pantaloon has had no competition at all. Another interesting statistic is about the Pantaloons net profit for FY 2008 in comparison to Shoppers Stop. Pantaloon had a net profit of Rs.125.94 cr, while Shoppers Stop had an loss of Rs.63.72 cr. Clearly Pantaloon remains the market leader as far as retail is  concerned. INTERNATIONAL RETAIL ENTERING INDIA International retailers Indias vast middle class with its expanding purchasing power and its almost untapped retail industry are key attractions for global retail giants wanting to enter newer markets. The Australian governments National Food Industry Strategy and Astride  initiated a test marketing food retail in India wherein 12 major Australian food  producers have tied up with India-based distributor AB Mauri to sell their  products directly at retail outlets. US-based home delivery and logistics company, Specialized Transportation Inc, will enter the Indian market through a strategic alliance with Patel Retail, a subsidiary of Patel Integrated Logistics. Wal-Mart has announced its plans for India in partnership with Bharti, US coffee chain Starbucks is well on its way to set up its first store in India this year. US based Tommy Hilfiger has tied up with Creative Portico, a Mumbai based home textiles company, to sell its home textiles and furnishings in India. Alfred Dunhill, a UK-based luxury mens brand, has tied up with Brand house Retail Ltd. for its India venture and will be opening four stores in the country. THE ROAD AHEAD Pantaloon planed to expand its retail stores to small cities like lucknow, Nagpur etc. By the end of 2005, pantaloon is expected to have 30 food bazaars,22 big bazaars,21 pantaloons 4 centrals. Pantaloon also had planned to venture into footwear, consumer durables, music car accessories retailing. The company also had a forged alliance with a sports retail footwear company called Royal sports house. As a repositioning, Mr. Biyani has planned to give a new makeover to pantaloons. To re-establish and rejuvenate its existing brands, pantaloons intended to spend INR 2 crores additional INR 1 crore on its upcoming brand. The company was planning to reduce the number of vendors for both Pantaloons and Big bazaar. To meet its growing technology meet, they planned to deploy a retail ERP solution, which would support functions such as HR Marketing. Pantaloons planned to launch a B2B portal, to bring transparency in the value chain. CONCLUSION Pantaloon Retail (India) Ltd is a company where it strives for Pantaloon Retail (India) Ltd is a company where it strives for lifestyle and value through its products and services. Through the study, it is observed that pantaloon can be said an organization where the Ps of marketing is taken seriously for the maximum profitability through large range of products, promotional activities for the company and a solid sales organization monitoring that the Ps are worked effectively. The stores has been well maintained in accordance with the latest demands of the maintained in accordance with the latest demands of the consumers and through all these strategies Pantaloon ensures repeated customer patronage.

Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System

Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system This report considers recent research evidence related to inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, in relation to social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system. A definition of inclusive education relevant to early educational practice will be offered. A literature review will be undertaken, that will principally examine the size of the social class differences amongst young children, and will go on to consider a case study of inclusive practice that was implemented at one English primary school. Recommendations for future research are made. Introduction Since the publication of the Plowden Report in 1967, it has been apparent that social class has a profound effect on the educational achievement of primary school children. In the past two decades, there have been a number of specific legislative changes that have altered the shape of primary school education. With the Education Reform Act(1988), schools have been required to undertake standardised testing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science subjects. Furthermore, schools have been required to publish controversial ‘league tables’ of performance, alongside national averages, in their school prospectus publications. There have been several policies introduced to reduce the effects of deprivation on young children including Sure Start, and a planned widening of availability of nursery education all in the name of ‘inclusive education’ (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield, Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New Labour policy makers strive to â€Å"make all families like middle-class families, or at least the ideal-typical middle class family of much educational research† (p 7). However, there is surprisingly little empirical research evidence available on inclusive education, or equality of opportunity in early educational settings, with most studies focussing on secondary school children. This is also regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) have clearly shown that at the age of seven, prior attainment accounts for 26-43% of variance in national assessment results (p 389 – 407). Therefore, early teaching support of children with special educational needs, or affected by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense importance to prevent children who start school behind their peers from falling further behind as their school careers progress. This report will critically assess available empirical studies related to the education of children aged 7 years and below within the United Kingdom. Furthermore, it will examine theoretical and philosophical perspectives on early inclusive education, and make recommendations for further research. Method The search strategy employed for the literature review involved searching electronic bibliographical databases for relevant research and policy papers related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and social class issues with English school pupils aged 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most papers that were located and subsequently considered in this literature review were published in the 1990’s and2000’s. The electronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British Education Index and Psych Lit. Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an individual basis to assess their relevance to the literature review. Research papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from various library sources. However, it was felt that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey literature. Therefore, the Education Line database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was also searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government official statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way. Literature Review Although ‘inclusive education’ has been the buzz word of the education sector for many years, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. It broadly includes reference to a schools receptivity to accommodate the needs of all its pupils, and be â€Å"more responsive to pupil diversity†(Fiorina, Rouse, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) have argued that inclusion and achieving high standards are not necessarily mutually exclusive goals, with some schools achieving both (p 115). Stephen and Cope (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, drawing distinction between the individual model where the deprived pupil is seen as ‘the problem’ (p 274) to be moulded into the school system, towards a social model of inclusive education. The social model acknowledges that there may be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, but also consider the possible institutional and operational barriers that hinder children’s entry and integration into infant schools. In their study, children from middleclass homes were supported by parents when they started infant schoolboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and through more proactive involvement in school activities (p 273). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners working in three English LEA’s to assess what ‘inclusive education ‘development was possible in schools, and make sense of school responses to the inclusion agenda. Some teachers reported confusion over what ‘inclusive education’ was, since many official sources of information focussed on inclusion of children with special educational needs only(p 1). However, most teachers saw ‘inclusive education’ as provision for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a version of inclusive education that is compatible with New Labour’s ‘social inclusion’ agenda ensuring that all members of society participate in the opportunities and activities of mainstream society (Blanket, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was â€Å"a set of broad values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a commitment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised groups) in common education† (p 2). In synthesising research papers on social class related to early education, it is apparent that the term ‘social class’ has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to â€Å"identify and separate the effects of different combinations of disadvantaging factors, noting that whilst not additive there is evidence of cumulative disadvantage (i.e. experiencing one factor such as low social class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors)† (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has classified the different interpretations as including children from low income households, parental unemployment, paternal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate housing environment (p 10). She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, but only a few studies specifically examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as indicated by eligibility for free school meals, appears to have marked effect on educational achievement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that receipt of income support benefit by the household accounted for 66% of variance in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10). Sparks (1999) has stated that â€Å"non-school factors are a more important source of variation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students receive† (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools can counteract some of the effects of social deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of between 8% and 15%, and school effects are greater within the primary school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12). However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving nursery education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a positive impact on achievement in national assessment tests at the age of seven (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, poor families may not have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high. Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the private sector provision where necessary. Smaller studies have shown an association between social class and early pupil attainment. However, stronger evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated Key Stage One results for local education authorities in England, against measures of social class obtained from the 1991 Social Census. This study clearly showed that social class, as evidenced through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local Education Authority’s Key Stage One test scores, across all LEA’s sampled (p 95). Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with performance at Key Stage One (p 280). More recently, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children longitudinally at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools effectiveness at developing cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children. Detailed records were kept on every child’s background characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as father’s occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in absolute attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in reading rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for just over 7% of variance in reading test performance, while having father working in an semi or unskilled profession accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%. However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for just 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was based on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980’s, and prior to the onset of the National Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published using a British school population. With high statistical power afforded through the sample size, it is possible tube confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar design but that are carried out now that the National Curriculum is an established format of educational provision within primary schools. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the ‘outdated’ paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility. In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for Baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The baseline assessment is a structured series of questions designed to assess pupils’ English ability, in terms of oral, reading and writing ability. In addition, early mathematical understanding is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. Strand (1999) has studied the results of baseline testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are based at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London. The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based around a range of background factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are length of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment collected by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlations between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key Stage 1 achievement, in the region of 0.6 or above. Furthermore, the test battery are highly predictive of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for writing. The combination of the LARR objective measure of literacy, and the teacher checklist, together make the best overall indicator of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five whole points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20). In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational progress of1669 Wands worth school children who had completed baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the sense that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined according the level of deprivation in the local community. The same assessment materials were used for this study as in Strand (1999). The pattern of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by; as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479). Composite measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and percentage of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. â€Å"These compositional effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account† (Strand, 1997, p 479). This means that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, â€Å"It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their context: they may receive greater help from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an atmosphere more conducive to learning† (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order. They suggest, â€Å"The school constitutes, in microcosm, a multifaceted and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex system†¦in order to operate successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an understanding of the connections between such important system-concepts as rules, roles, power and community† (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age of 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was therefore broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely working class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school. In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the head-teacher in the power structure was evident in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary years. The researchers closely examined the responses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school. At the middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend patterns where children’s knowledge and understanding increased with years. However, for the working-class school, the pattern of responses were more complicated. Children were much less likely to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling ‘included’ in school, with a strong sense of membership that children often report at the middle class school (p263). Examination of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents. As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have suggested, â€Å"Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to take issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and better equipped to make their feelings known, it might be expected that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, maybe seen as less threatening† (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in children’s understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school. According to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increased cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the children’s responses may not be due to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional factors may have an important contribution to children’s understanding of the school, with parents, teachers and children’s interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil. A social representation perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful detailed case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildren’s educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (‘Broad mead’) in an urban area, primarily serving families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in writing ability during Key Stage assessments. The school had identified a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to meet national expectations. School staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the cause of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to improve writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, â€Å"the school’s response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the realisation that customary practice simply did not ‘work’ in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment† (p 3). The school had moved towards a more experimental approach in the curriculum, and included new teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as thinking skills techniques. However, the actual underlying purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from standard practice. Over the course of the project, the experience of implementing new approaches and of their impact on children’s learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children. The original aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own right amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had therefore decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects. When the research team interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was generally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was due to the fact that children entered school with very limited language skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that ‘catch up ‘once they started school was insufficient to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family communication about education at home. This lack of preparation for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the ‘northern lad’ who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education. In summary, â€Å"some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills† (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement new teaching strategies as they had ‘internalised’ the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment system, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them deficit (p 7). This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an alternative perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of current educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers’ deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities. Conclusion Recent Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain mere ‘rhetoric’ unless there is evidence based research to provide teachers with practical skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. Research studies have consistently shown that working class children are regarded as the ‘problem’ that must be adapted to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom. However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers recognise that some children enter infant school poorly prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. Implementation of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution. However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if ‘inclusive education’ is truly ‘inclusive’ throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers’ implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next step is to develop longitudinal, vigorous research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice. Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. Sparks (1999) has shown that factors, such as social class, are associated with educational attainment, amongst young children. However, it is less clear about what aspects of social class are causal, and not merely correlated (p 10), and there is a need to investigate the specific aspects of social class that maybe associated/causing educational difficulties for children. References Barnes J, Balky J, Broomfield K, Sana D, Frost M, Melhuish E and the National Evaluation of the Sure Start Research Team (2005)Disadvantaged but different: variation among deprived communities in relation to child and family well-being. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46.9, pp. 952 – 962. Blanket D (1999) Excellence for the many, not just the few. CBI Presidential Address 19 July 1999 (DFEE, London). Buchanan-Burrow E and Barratt M (1998) Individual Differences in Children’s Understanding of the School. Social Development 7.2, pp250-268. Elmer N and Hana J (1993) Studying social representations in children: just old wine in new bottles? In G Break well and D Canter (ends)Empirical Approaches to Social Representatives (Oxford University Press, Oxford). Fiorina L, Rouse M, Black-Hawkins K and Jull S (2004) What can national data sets tell us about inclusion and pupil achievement. British Journal of Special Education 31.3, pp. 115 -121. Gallannaugh F and Dyson A (2003) Schools understanding of inclusion: issues in inclusion and social class. (British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, Edinburgh). Geertz S (2001) Cloning the Blair’s. Journal of Educational Policy 16.4, pp. 365-378. McCollum I (1993) Testing Seven Year Olds – performance and context. Population Advice Note, pp. 93-101 (London Research Centre, London) Reynolds D, Sammons P, Stoll P, Barber M and Hillman J (1996) School effectiveness and school improvement in the United Kingdom. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 7, pp. 133 – 158. Sammons P (1995) Gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in attainment and progress: a longitudinal analysis of student achievement over 9 years. British Educational Research Journal 21.4, pp. 465-485. Sammons P and Sees R (1998) Measuring pupil progress at key stage one: using baseline assessment to investigate value added. School Leadership and Management 18.3, pp. 389 – 407. Sparks J (1999) Schools, Education and Social Exclusion. (Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, LSE, London). Stephen C and Cope P (2003) An Inclusive Perspective on Transition to Primary School. European Educational Research Journal 2.2, pp. 262 -275. Strand S (1997) Pupil Progress during Key Stage 1: A Value Added Analysis of School Effects. British Educational Research Journal 23.4,pp 471 – 487. Strand S (1999) Baseline assessment results at age 4: associations with pupil background factors. Journal of Research in Reading 22.1, pp. 14-26. The Plowden Report (1967) Children and their Primary Schools. (HMSO: London) Thomas S (1995) Considering primary school effectiveness: an analysis of 1992 Key Stage 1 results. The Curriculum Journal 6, pp. 279 – 295. West A, Pennell H, West A and Travers T (1999) The financing of school based education. (Centre for Educational Research, London). Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Effect of Social Class on Children in the Educational System Social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system This report considers recent research evidence related to inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, in relation to social class and how it affects children aged 7 years and below within the English educational system. A definition of inclusive education relevant to early educational practice will be offered. A literature review will be undertaken, that will principally examine the size of the social class differences amongst young children, and will go on to consider a case study of inclusive practice that was implemented at one English primary school. Recommendations for future research are made. Introduction Since the publication of the Plowden Report in 1967, it has been apparent that social class has a profound effect on the educational achievement of primary school children. In the past two decades, there have been a number of specific legislative changes that have altered the shape of primary school education. With the Education Reform Act(1988), schools have been required to undertake standardised testing of7 year old children in English, Mathematics and Science subjects. Furthermore, schools have been required to publish controversial ‘league tables’ of performance, alongside national averages, in their school prospectus publications. There have been several policies introduced to reduce the effects of deprivation on young children including Sure Start, and a planned widening of availability of nursery education all in the name of ‘inclusive education’ (Barnes, Belsky,Broomfield, Dave et al, 2004, p 46-9). Indeed, Geertz (2001) has argued that New Labour policy makers strive to â€Å"make all families like middle-class families, or at least the ideal-typical middle class family of much educational research† (p 7). However, there is surprisingly little empirical research evidence available on inclusive education, or equality of opportunity in early educational settings, with most studies focussing on secondary school children. This is also regrettable since Sammons and Sees (1998) have clearly shown that at the age of seven, prior attainment accounts for 26-43% of variance in national assessment results (p 389 – 407). Therefore, early teaching support of children with special educational needs, or affected by poverty or difficult personal circumstances would appear to be of immense importance to prevent children who start school behind their peers from falling further behind as their school careers progress. This report will critically assess available empirical studies related to the education of children aged 7 years and below within the United Kingdom. Furthermore, it will examine theoretical and philosophical perspectives on early inclusive education, and make recommendations for further research. Method The search strategy employed for the literature review involved searching electronic bibliographical databases for relevant research and policy papers related to the topic of inclusive education, and equality of opportunity, and social class issues with English school pupils aged 7 and under. No date restrictions were imposed on the searches, although most papers that were located and subsequently considered in this literature review were published in the 1990’s and2000’s. The electronic bibliographical databases that were searched were ERIC, the British Education Index and Psych Lit. Abstracts for each paper were inspected on an individual basis to assess their relevance to the literature review. Research papers within the terms of the literature review were then obtained from various library sources. However, it was felt that much of the research on early inclusive education would be found in the grey literature. Therefore, the Education Line database of conference proceedings, provided by Leeds University, was also searched for relevant papers. Finally, a search of the websites of highly regarded academic educational research centres, and government official statistics, was undertaken and further relevant research reports were obtained this way. Literature Review Although ‘inclusive education’ has been the buzz word of the education sector for many years, there is a lack of clarity in its definition. It broadly includes reference to a schools receptivity to accommodate the needs of all its pupils, and be â€Å"more responsive to pupil diversity†(Fiorina, Rouse, Black-Hawkins and Jull (2004), p 118). Furthermore, Fiorina et al (2004) have argued that inclusion and achieving high standards are not necessarily mutually exclusive goals, with some schools achieving both (p 115). Stephen and Cope (2003) have further elaborated on the interpretation of inclusive education, drawing distinction between the individual model where the deprived pupil is seen as ‘the problem’ (p 274) to be moulded into the school system, towards a social model of inclusive education. The social model acknowledges that there may be individual characteristics of the child that need to be considered, but also consider the possible institutional and operational barriers that hinder children’s entry and integration into infant schools. In their study, children from middleclass homes were supported by parents when they started infant schoolboy practising numeracy and literacy at home, and through more proactive involvement in school activities (p 273). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have conducted a study of 25 practitioners working in three English LEA’s to assess what ‘inclusive education ‘development was possible in schools, and make sense of school responses to the inclusion agenda. Some teachers reported confusion over what ‘inclusive education’ was, since many official sources of information focussed on inclusion of children with special educational needs only(p 1). However, most teachers saw ‘inclusive education’ as provision for all children who were at risk of underachieving within the educational system, a version of inclusive education that is compatible with New Labour’s ‘social inclusion’ agenda ensuring that all members of society participate in the opportunities and activities of mainstream society (Blanket, 1999). A definition of inclusive education that attracted consensus amongst the teachers was â€Å"a set of broad values which we understood to be inclusive, and which we articulated as a commitment to equality, and increasing participation of all children (rather than one or other marginalised groups) in common education† (p 2). In synthesising research papers on social class related to early education, it is apparent that the term ‘social class’ has been interpreted in different ways by different authors. Sammons (1995) has highlighted that some researchers have attempted to â€Å"identify and separate the effects of different combinations of disadvantaging factors, noting that whilst not additive there is evidence of cumulative disadvantage (i.e. experiencing one factor such as low social class or low income on its own is less closely associated with low attainment than experiencing both these factors)† (p 467). Furthermore, Sparks (1999) has classified the different interpretations as including children from low income households, parental unemployment, paternal/ maternal occupation and inappropriate housing environment (p 10). She has examined research studies that look at each of these aspects, but only a few studies specifically examine the age range of 0 to 7 years. Pupils coming from a low income household, as indicated by eligibility for free school meals, appears to have marked effect on educational achievement at the age of 7 years and above (p 14). Furthermore, West, Pennell, West and Travers (1999) have shown that receipt of income support benefit by the household accounted for 66% of variance in educational achievement at a local authority level (p 10). Sparks (1999) has stated that â€Å"non-school factors are a more important source of variation in educational achievement than differences in the quality of education that students receive† (p 9).However, there is a broad consensus that schools can counteract some of the effects of social deprivation through inclusive educational practice. Indeed, empirical evidence suggests that schools have an independent effect of between 8% and 15%, and school effects are greater within the primary school sector (Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber et al, 1996 (p 140)). In the UK, research evidence on the effects of pre-school education are mixed (Sparks, 1999, p 12). However, research studies have indicated that when children receiving nursery education are compared to those receiving no nursery education, pre-school experience has a positive impact on achievement in national assessment tests at the age of seven (Sammons and Sees, 1998, p 400).However, poor families may not have access to quality services in areas where demand for nursery services is high. Middle class families, however, may have the advantage in that they can turn to the private sector provision where necessary. Smaller studies have shown an association between social class and early pupil attainment. However, stronger evidence is supplied by McCullum (1993) who compared aggregated Key Stage One results for local education authorities in England, against measures of social class obtained from the 1991 Social Census. This study clearly showed that social class, as evidenced through the number of social class 1 and 2individuals in the local population, showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with the Local Education Authority’s Key Stage One test scores, across all LEA’s sampled (p 95). Furthermore, Thomas (1995) has also shown how free school meal entitlement, and special educational needs, were strongly correlated with performance at Key Stage One (p 280). More recently, Sammons (1995) has studied 2000primary school children longitudinally at 50 ethnically diverse inner-city schools over a 9 year period. The children were monitored from the ages of 7 to 10 years. For the purpose of this report the results will be reported for the youngest of the cohort. The main purpose of the study was to assess primary schools effectiveness at developing cognitive and non-cognitive educational outcomes amongst children. Detailed records were kept on every child’s background characteristics such as ethnicity, socio-economic status and gender. For the purpose of the study, social class was measured as father’s occupation, and eligibility for free school meals. There were statistically significant differences in absolute attainment at ages 7, and above (p 479), with the biggest effect being in reading rather than mathematics performance. At 7 years, receiving free school meals accounted for just over 7% of variance in reading test performance, while having father working in an semi or unskilled profession accounted for 14.5%of variance, and having a father who was unemployed accounted for8.35%. However, for mathematics test performance, free school meals accounted for just 1.3% of variance, and having a father in a semi/unskilled profession accounted for 4.22% of variance while having father who was unemployed at the time of the study accounted for 2.57%of variance (p 471). This study was based on pupils attending primary schools in the decade of the 1980’s, and prior to the onset of the National Curriculum. It is the only longitudinal study of its kind that has been published using a British school population. With high statistical power afforded through the sample size, it is possible tube confident in the results. However, research studies are required that adopt a similar design but that are carried out now that the National Curriculum is an established format of educational provision within primary schools. Studies are also required that examine more dimensions of social class than the ‘outdated’ paternal occupation, and free school meals eligibility. In 1998, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority introduced a National Framework for Baseline Assessment for all pupils at the start of their school careers. The baseline assessment is a structured series of questions designed to assess pupils’ English ability, in terms of oral, reading and writing ability. In addition, early mathematical understanding is measured through a series of questions that require teachers to judge the ability of the child. Strand (1999) has studied the results of baseline testing of over 11,000 four year old children prior to their entry to primary school reception class. The data cover the period of 1993 to 1997, and are based at Wandsworth Local Education Authority in London. The results indicate that there are significant variations in baseline test score achievement based around a range of background factors such as age of child, gender, ethnicity and economic status. Measures of interest to the present literature review are length of preschool education by the pupil and entitlement to free school meals, which is the surrogate measure of social class used for baseline testing. Measures of attainment collected by the study were the LARR (Linguistic Awareness in Reading Readiness) test of emergent literacy and the teacher checklist described above. The results show statistically significant, strong correlations between school entrants on baseline measures and their subsequent overall Key Stage 1 achievement, in the region of 0.6 or above. Furthermore, the test battery are highly predictive of both English and Mathematics achievement in Key Stage 1 assessments in the individual subjects, with correlations in the region of 0.55 for mathematics, 0.55 for reading, and 0.49 for writing. The combination of the LARR objective measure of literacy, and the teacher checklist, together make the best overall indicator of later achievement for the children, compared to either test in isolation. Amount of preschool education received by children also significantly predicted Key Stage One achievement in all subjects. Furthermore, children in receipt of eligibility for free school meals were noted to score, on average, over five whole points less than their peers on baseline tests. Their mean scores were 29.7 (SD 11.4) compared to 34.9 (SD 12.2) for non-entitled children (p 20). In a further study, Strand (1997) tracked the educational progress of1669 Wands worth school children who had completed baseline assessments during 1992 and 1993. He considered the important of school effects, which is importance to social class considerations in the sense that schools are located in specific catchment areas that can be defined according the level of deprivation in the local community. The same assessment materials were used for this study as in Strand (1999). The pattern of achievement described for children eligible for free school meals at school entry was one where they started below other peers, in terms of baseline testing, and gradually fell further behind as time went by; as reflected in their Key Stage One performance (p 479). Composite measure of school effects of child performance at Key Stage One was taken to comprise of seven factors including gender ratio of school population, proportion of pupils with eligibility for free school meals and percentage of bilingual school pupils. Strand (1997)found that where there was a high rate of free school meal eligibility, this was one of the statistically significant factors, along with gender ratio and proportion of ESL pupils in school composite effects. â€Å"These compositional effects are significant even after each individual pupils baseline scores, sex, FSM entitlement and ESL background have been taken into account† (Strand, 1997, p 479). This means that school performance as a whole, as well as individual pupil progress, would appear to be associated with the proportion of free school meal claimants in the school population. Indeed, â€Å"It can be hypothesised that schools with a low proportion of socially disadvantaged pupils may have some benefits associated with their context: they may receive greater help from parents, have fewer disciplinary problems or an atmosphere more conducive to learning† (p 485). Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have considered how young children understand school, and how this is affected by socio-economic factors, along with gender and birth-order. They suggest, â€Å"The school constitutes, in microcosm, a multifaceted and multi-layered society with an extensive and complex system†¦in order to operate successfully in this system, the young pupil needs to acquire an understanding of the connections between such important system-concepts as rules, roles, power and community† (p 250). A total of 112 children were included in the study from the age of 5 and upwards, at two primary schools in London. The first school had a free school meal ratio of 3% and was therefore broadly classified as a middle class school. The second school had a much higher free school meal ratio of 49% and the intake population was largely working class. Parents and teachers completed questionnaires, and the children were interviewed about their understanding of the power structure in the school, and their attitudes towards their school. In general, young children had the most positive attitudes towards school of all children studied. Furthermore, there were no differences in the attitudes towards school by socio-economic class, but there was a significant correlation between child and parental views on the school. The importance of the head-teacher in the power structure was evident in the responses of all children, butane understanding of the purpose of the class teachers was patchy until the middle primary years. The researchers closely examined the responses of the children at both schools for social class effects on comprehension and understanding of the school. At the middle-class school, the responses of the children followed general age trend patterns where children’s knowledge and understanding increased with years. However, for the working-class school, the pattern of responses were more complicated. Children were much less likely to discuss the role of parents, and children in the organisation and function of school compared to children at the other school. This suggests that children are not feeling ‘included’ in school, with a strong sense of membership that children often report at the middle class school (p263). Examination of parental responses to the questionnaire revealed broadly similar responses between schools, but working class parents reported feeling more welcome at the school than middle class parents. As Buchanan-Barrow and Barratt (1998) have suggested, â€Å"Since middleclass parents are likely to be readier to take issue, more assured of their ability to achieve their aims and better equipped to make their feelings known, it might be expected that the staff might be more wary of their interventions and less warm in their welcome. On the other hand, working class parents, without the same sense of empowerment, maybe seen as less threatening† (p 263). This is an important study in that it reveals age-trends in children’s understanding of school, and their place within the power structure and function of the school. According to Piaget cognitive theory, age-related differences in understanding are to be expected, as a combination of increased cognitive abilities with age. However, constructivism alone does not explain the individual differences in responses. The age related findings in the children’s responses may not be due to developmental changes in cognitive ability alone. In particular, social-interactional factors may have an important contribution to children’s understanding of the school, with parents, teachers and children’s interactions about the school being mediated by the age of the pupil. A social representation perspective would emphasise the individual differences in responses according to social class, gender and so forth (Elmer and Hana, 1993). However, this study showed that the acquisition of social knowledge and social understanding was more individual, than collective (p 265). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) have provided a useful detailed case study of how inclusive education can work at improving primary schoolchildren’s educational achievements. They collected data from one primary school (‘Broad mead’) in an urban area, primarily serving families of the local council housing estate where the eligibility for free school meals was above national averages. The school decided to address the specific issue of underachievement in writing ability during Key Stage assessments. The school had identified a group of middle ability school pupils who were failing to meet national expectations. School staff did not feel that poor teaching maybe the cause of the problem, and many teachers cited specific and concerted efforts by teachers to improve writing standards using a range of teaching strategies. However, â€Å"the school’s response to the problem was to problematize some of its existing practices. To some extent, this appeared to be a result of the realisation that customary practice simply did not ‘work’ in the sense that despite all efforts to hone teaching skills, the school had apparently reached a ceiling in attainment† (p 3). The school had moved towards a more experimental approach in the curriculum, and included new teaching strategies to help pupil learning such as thinking skills techniques. However, the actual underlying purpose of introducing a specific intervention was unclear, with more emphasis on anxiety about school performance compared to national standards, as opposed to inclusion for all. Nevertheless, it represented a departure from standard practice. Over the course of the project, the experience of implementing new approaches and of their impact on children’s learning led teachers to rethink their ideas about educational/ personal outcomes that are important to children. The original aim had been to improve achievement standards in writing, but the intervention had also appeared to impact on child self-esteem, learning in other subject areas, and educational confidence. The teachers reported that they valued these additional attainments in their own right amongst their pupils. Teachers had identified that the children had very limited learning techniques and strategies, and had therefore decided to focus on teaching children how to learn, in parallel to the curriculum subjects. When the research team interviewed teachers about why they felt their pupils had struggled in writing skills, it was generally felt that the critical barrier to raising all aspects of literacy was due to the fact that children entered school with very limited language skills that affected their access to most subjects. The head teacher felt that ‘catch up ‘once they started school was insufficient to counter the effects of poor literacy environment at home, and lack of family communication about education at home. This lack of preparation for school was complicated by local cultural factors such as socialisation of boys from working class households into the role of the ‘northern lad’ who was expected to behave stereotypically, and not necessarily express an interest in education. In summary, â€Å"some children came to school from families where education was not valued, with limited experiences, and(particularly in primary schools) limited language skills† (p 5). Gallannaugh and Dyson (2003) provide two competing perspectives on the work at Broad mead primary school. In one sense, teachers were willing to implement new teaching strategies as they had ‘internalised’ the demands of the national curriculum and school assessment system, but also the characteristics of working class children that make them deficit (p 7). This could be regarded as anti-inclusive practice since it aimed to socialise working class children into middle class ideals. However, an alternative perspective on the work at Broadmeadis that the school resisted the pressure and constraints of current educational policy, and found time to try out alternative learning strategies, which children self-reported as beneficial. Furthermore, teachers’ deficit view of the working class children was increasingly challenged as they were equipped with new skills to allow them to demonstrate their true abilities. Conclusion Recent Government policy has moved towards emphasising inclusive education, particularly in the early years. However, there is a danger that policy will remain mere ‘rhetoric’ unless there is evidence based research to provide teachers with practical skills to provide equality of opportunity for their pupils. Research studies have consistently shown that working class children are regarded as the ‘problem’ that must be adapted to the middle class educational environment of the infant school classroom. However, a social model of inclusive education that acknowledges individual difficulties in adaptation, as well as institutional barriers to learning maybe a more constructive approach. Teachers working within English schools are constrained in the classroom by their need to meet national curriculum requirements, and achieve required standards from their pupils. Conversely, teachers recognise that some children enter infant school poorly prepared forth demands of formal education through their home backgrounds, and require additional support. Implementation of special strategies to enhance the language, communication and thinking skills of children, such as at Broad mead school, maybe one solution. However, children of lower social class backgrounds may require long term intervention if ‘inclusive education’ is truly ‘inclusive’ throughout their school careers. This literature review has revealed the lack of research studies to support teachers’ implementation of effective strategies to promote learning amongst young children from deprived backgrounds. To date, research studies have concentrated on identifying the size of the discrepancy in performance between school pupils. The next step is to develop longitudinal, vigorous research programmes within English infant schools to inform evidence-based teaching practice. Furthermore, there is a need to explore the concept of social class, and how it affects young children, in more detail, and to understand how it interacts with other risk factors such as English as a second language. Sparks (1999) has shown that factors, such as social class, are associated with educational attainment, amongst young children. However, it is less clear about what aspects of social class are causal, and not merely correlated (p 10), and there is a need to investigate the specific aspects of social class that maybe associated/causing educational difficulties for children. 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